How might perfectionism influence employees’ well-being?

Introduction

A personality characteristic many employees bring to their pursuit of career success is perfectionism – a striving for flawlessness, setting excessively high standards for performance and evaluating one’s own behaviour overly critically (Harari, Swider, Steed & Breidenthal, 2018; p 1121; Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). According to Flett et. al (2002: p 5), research and theory on perfectionism have grown exponentially and this rising trend (see Figure 1) has continued over the following two decades (Smith, Sherry, Ge, Hewitt, Flett & Baggley, 2021) suggesting its significance and fits into the narrative of an increasing number of young people over time identifying as perfectionists (Curran & Hill, 2019). Nevertheless, scholars suggest workplace perfectionism (having very high standards of work performance and feelings of falling short) is an important, under-researched area (Stoeber, 2018) and comparatively overlooked despite its potential positive (adaptive) and negative (maladaptive) effects on employee well-being (EW) (Ozbilir, Day & Catano, 2014; Harari et al., 2018; Ocampo, Wang, Kiazad, Restubog & Ashkanasy, 2019). EW is a general subjective and multi-dimensional state reflecting physical, material, social, emotional, development, and activity dimensions applied to the workplace (Waddell & Burton, 2006; p 4). This essay will review and critique available workplace studies based on well-researched perfectionism theory & models and their influence on critical EW variables. First, the two-factor model of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006) aggregated from the three dimensions of perfectionism (Hewitt, Flett, Turnbull-Donovan & Mikail, 1991) followed by the 2×2 model (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010). Finally, an everyday problem influencing EW, is an empirically, relatively new personality construct narcissistic perfectionism (NP), a notable example is Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple (Comeau, 2016). EW variables include work engagement (meaningfulness, positivity, involvement, commitment, enthusiasm, and passion for work), workaholism (an uncontrollable need to work incessantly characterised by excessive and compulsive working), and burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy) (Stoeber & Damian, 2015).

The two‐factor model – perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns

Stoeber et. al, 2006 developed a two-factor model where perfectionistic strivings (PS) capture those aspects of self-orientated striving for perfectionism and setting exceedingly high standards of performance, and perfectionistic concerns (PC) capture those aspects of perfectionism reflecting concerns over mistakes, fear of negative social evaluation if not perfect, doubts about actions, feelings of the discrepancy between one’s high standards and actual performance, and negative reactions to imperfections. PS are typically associated with adaptive and conscientiousness and PS with maladaptive and neuroticism (Stoeber et. al, 2015; Smith, Sherry, Vidovic, Saklofske, Stoeber & Benoit, 2019).

In a recent report, Mohr, Venz, and Sonnentag (2022) suggest work perfectionism fluctuates daily from relevant cues: experienced time pressure (too many tasks, insufficient time) and criticism (inappropriate work performance) and influences EW in the state of vigour and negative affect at the end of the workday and bedtime. Time pressure is related positively to PS and PC whereas criticism is only to PC. Important to note research from Baethge, Deci, Dettmers & Rigotti, 2019 suggesting creating tight deadlines may be detrimental (health effects & work engagement). Vigour and negative affect were assessed at two different times to capture the spillover affect; however, it may have been measured several times per day to better understand their relationships and reduce retrospective bias. Experiencing workplace criticism may trigger PC and in agreement with the study proposal, subordinates and colleagues should refrain from making derogatory comments about employees’ work performance. Likewise, types of work-related thinking such as worry and rumination were found especially detrimental to EW and recovery.

In a recent report, Flaxman, Stride, Söderberg, Lloyd, Guenole and Bond (2018) suggest when examining PS, PC, and work-related cognitions experienced by employees during evening leisure time that PC was indirectly negatively associated with sleep quality and workday functioning through worrying and ruminating about work (detrimental to EW). Conversely, PS was indirectly positively associated with workday engagement through the tendency to experience positive thoughts about work during evening leisure time (beneficial for EW). Important to note that data collection did not extend into Friday afternoons to examine the spillover into the weekend. Furthermore, the focus was placed on PS & PC whereas loading Self-Orientated Perfectionism and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (see next paragraph) on the former may have enhanced the scope of perfectionistic characteristics. Short and economical cognitive-behavioural therapy interventions proposed may teach leaders the signs of perfectionism and abstain from disciplining subordinates for minor errors and assisting employees outside work time to detach.

The dimensions of perfectionism

Important when conceptualising a personality characteristic is to reflect not only what it is and its scale but both the interpersonal source and target of perfectionistic expectations (Smith et. al, 2021). Hewitt et. al (1991) outlined three dimensions of perfectionism assessed on three subscales of the multidimensional perfection scale: SOP – Self-Orientated Perfectionism (the setting of excessively high standards and perfectionistic motivation for one’s self), SPP – Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (the perception that others hold excessively high standard for one’s self) and OOP – Other-Orientated Perfectionism (holding unrealistic standards of performance for significant others). Childs and Stoeber (2012) suggested that SPP was not only associated with higher levels of role stress (conflict & ambiguity) and burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, inefficiency) but more significantly these increase over time. Recently, Kinman and Grant (2022) reported the maladaptive perfectionism for EW of social workers whereby SPP and OOP (exhaustion and reducing engagement) were found to be a greater risk of burnout versus SOP. Although both studies sampled teachers/healthcare workers, they may highlight burnout in high-performance environments and underline managerial awareness interventions, for example setting out expectations and tolerance for errors.

Gaudreau et. al (2010) proposed a 2 × 2 perfectionism model that SOP and SPP can coexist at various levels within individuals with four subtypes of perfectionism (non-perfectionism, pure SOP, pure SPP, and mixed perfectionism) and that combining perfectionism dimensions rather than the dimensions themselves should have a greater influence to predict various processes and outcomes. Li, Hou, Chi, Liu, and Hager (2014) practiced this model amongst Chinese I.T. employees and suggested that non-perfectionism was linked with lower levels of burnout versus pure SOP, but higher levels versus pure SPP. Additionally, mixed perfectionism was linked to greater levels of burnout versus pure SOP, although similar levels of burnout compared to pure SPP hence not supporting the proposed hypothesis. Although limited to I.T. professionals, minus WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic) bias, the findings suggest holding a moderate level of perfectionistic characteristic and putting appropriate high standards on oneself is beneficial to problem-solving and occupational mental health. Moving forward, scholars suggest the OOP dimension has a unique positive relationship with narcissism (Stoeber, 2015; Sherry, Gralnick, Hewitt, Sherry & Flett, 2014).

Narcissistic Perfectionism

Scholars suggest that NP is linked to social negativity realised through anger, conflict, derogation, and hostility (Nealis, Sherry, Sherry, Stewart & Macneil, 2015; Nealis, Sherry, Lee-Baggley, Stewart, Macneil, 2016). Despite these studies using predominately young women, it starts to uncover the level to which others’ well-being suffers at the hands of narcissistic perfectionists. Suggested inventions may include generating awareness of their actions on others to impact change (Comeau, 2016). The impact on the narcissistic perfectionist is apparent as Clark, Lelchook and Taylor (2010) suggest alongside neuroticism, other personality characteristics such as narcissism and the perfectionism dimensions of high standards and discrepancy are significantly related to workaholism. However, it is important to question the cross-gender relationship as the sample consisted of mainly women students, though working greater than 25 hours. Findings suggest that there are both positive and negative workaholism components. Implications for organisations include potentially rewarding positive behaviours such as multitasking and discouraging negative behaviours. Moreover, perhaps those displaying narcissistic characteristics value and pursue power and self-importance and may descend into a work preoccupation to succeed to the detriment of other life activities (e.g. disregarding family). However, as they have a high standing of themselves, they are not likely to be troubled by constant feelings of guilt, which is often a factor behind workaholic tendencies. NP research going forward may benefit from further cross-gender research with working-age adults.

Conclusion and future pathways

Perfectionism is a principal factor in understanding EW and may have both positive and negative consequences. Scholars are not always in agreement with the positive aspects (Harari et al., 2018) deeming perfectionism detrimental to EW. The relationship between PS seen as positive and EW is not conclusive (Li et. al, 2014) and is open to further research. Whereas others argue that under certain circumstances or a mixture of specific characteristics it does not have to be so (Ocampo et. al, 2020). This thinking may be because scholars have focused on the consequences of perfectionism on EW and should consider further empirical research of workplace interventions to harness the adaptive and alleviate the maladaptive consequences on EW. For example, promoting mindfulness training as perfectionists are low in mindfulness as it is focussed on the present, those who have high levels of perfectionism are not only focused on future goals, but they can also become pre-occupied with the past (Flett, Nepon, Hewitt & Rose, 2020). Furthermore, perfectionism influence on EW is evolving as highlighted by “the perfectionism pandemic” (Flett & Hewitt, 2020; p 83) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Further research warrants as of February 2022, 84% of UK workers who must work from home due to the pandemic said that they planned to conduct a mix of working from home and in their place of work in the future (Is Hybrid Working Here to Stay? – Office for National Statistics, 2022).

References

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Figure 1

Increase in Perfectionism Research

Note: This figure shows the number of articles listed on PsycINFO that mention the word “perfectionism” in the past four decades. Taken from Smith, Sherry, Ge, Hewitt, Flett & Baggley (2021; p 17).